Context
Background – George III reasserts Royal Absolutism in Britain’s 13 American Colonies

In America, the French Indian War was fought between 1754 and 1763. The conflict in Europe around this time was called the Six Year war. After the British victory in 1763, George III needed to replenish his coffers, so he levied taxes on the American colonies. British soldiers had protected them, and George III and the British Parliament believed that it was only right that the colonies should help pay the cost of the war against the French. The taxes proved to be very unpopular and the catchcry of ‘no taxation without representation’ caught on, especially in Boston, Massachusetts. Laws passed to increase British revenue from the colonies included:

The Sugar Act 5th April 1764
The Stamp Act 22nd March 1765
Townshend Acts 29th June 1767

The colonies refused to pay ‘their fair share’, unless they were represented in the British Parliament. This was perceived as impertinence and led to the imposition of repressive measures to force compliance – to bring the ‘recalcitrant’s’ to heel. Known as the ‘intolerable Acts, they included the following:

• Boston Port Act 31st March 1774 Closed the Port of Boston to all ships until full restitution was made to King George III treasury for customs duties lost as a result of the Boston Tea Party
• Administration of Justice Act 20th May 1774 would allow the King to move Massachusetts trials to a place of his choice, which could even be in England
• Massachusetts Government Act 20th May 1774 Required government appointments in Massachusetts to be made by the King and the people in the colony were allowed only one public meeting a year
• The Quartering Act 2nd June 1774 required the colonials to provide housing for all British soldiers

Early Stages of Conflict
• The Boston Massacre 5th March 1770
• The Boston Tea Party 16th December 1773
• Fort Ticonderoga seized by Ethan Allen and the Green Mountain Boys 10th May 1775
• The British forces sent to the townships of Concord and Lexington to seize guns, cannons and gunpowder were fired upon and the shot heard around the world signalled the start of hostilities on 19th April 1775.
• Battle of Bunker Hill fought on Breed’s Hill 17th June 1775 where the British attacked colonial forces occupying Boston high ground
• The British Evacuate Boston March 17th 1776 after an 11 month siege led by George Washington, who threatened the city with cannons captured at Fort Ticonderoga in 1775

Bunker Hill Monument in Boston

Concord Lexington - First Shots

Concord- first shot

The Declaration of Independence and the British Invasion

On the 4th July 1776 the American colonies declared their independence from Britain. Britain sent the largest amphibious invasion force in history, led by William Howe, to quash the misguided few who had incited trouble and lacked appreciation for the protection the mother country had given them during the French Indian War. It was composed of British professional soldiers and sailors, bolstered by Hessian mercenaries. A large percentage of the Colonial population had remained loyal and could be counted on for support. Much of the rest of the population were neutral, waiting to see how things turned out.

Over the course of a few weeks Washington, who had been appointed Commander in Chief by the Continental Congress of the 13 colonies, was completely outgeneralled by William Howe. He was repeatedly caught by ‘surprise’ British flanking manoeuvres. His defensive positions in Forts in Brooklyn and Manhattan were overrun and the routed Continental army barely escaped from New York. The British pursued relentlessly and the American forces retreated hurriedly out of New Jersey across the Delaware River to Pennsylvania, to what they hoped would be a safe haven - at least for the time being. Another part of Washington’s army had scattered north along the Hudson Valley to Upper New York, hoping to survive the winter.

Near the end of December 1776, Washington’s citizen’s army of farmers and storekeepers was scattered and in disarray. The British thought the rebellion, which they believed had been incited by just a few ‘hotheads’, was crushed. The British at this point thought it best to build goodwill for the mother country by restoring peace and order. Howe thought it would not be necessary to pursue the rebel remnants for the time being – he could routinely mop them up at the start of spring. For the remainder of the winter he occupied New York and New Jersey putting the loyalist majority back into control. It was believed that it would only be a matter of time before the other colonies fell into line. The perpetrators of the rebellion could be arrested later, tried and hung for their treason.

The British Are Forced to Rethink Their Policy of ‘Reconciliation’

On Christmas night, 1776, bolstered by reinforcements, Washington inspired his men to mount a surprise counterattack. During a fierce blizzard, the party under his direct command crossed the Delaware in Durham boats. Other units trying to ford the river at other crossings could not overcome the freezing conditions and had to turn back. Even though Washington did not have the numbers he planned for to carry out his surprise attack, he pushed forward and won a decisive victory over a larger force of Hessian mercenaries that were camped at The Old Barracks at Trenton, New Jersey. The rebellion was alive – barely.

Gen. Washington crossed Daleware River just here

Painting: crossing the frozen river

Once back in Pennsylvania Washington faced the breakup of his army. The enlistment agreements of his vetereans would expire in the next few days and they were looking forward to celebrating the new year at home with their families. The Commander was able to persuade his men to extend their enlistment for another 6 weeks and participate in a second crossing of the Delaware on the 27th December. They had to make the crossing on foot because the 5 to 8 cm river ice was not thick enough to carry horses. On January 3rd 1777 the Continentals won a second decisive victory at Princeton, New Jersey.

Princeton - battle map

Princeton - memorial plaque

William Howe realised that the Americans were not demoralised, nor were they beaten. How could they be beaten? The strategy devised was to cut off the cities of the New England region from their supply sources. An army led by Burgoyne would march south from Canada, along the north/south line starting at Lake Champlain then tracking south along the Hudson River. A British division, presently in western New York would move east to meet up with Burgoyne. General William Howe would march his New Jersey army north up the Hudson and rendezvous with the other two at Albany, New York. The New England focal point of the rebellion would be isolated and slowly suffocated. The perception of British invincibility would be reaffirmed and the other colonies would come to understand the hopelessness of resistance.

Pulaski and Kosciuszko – For Your Freedom and Ours

Aware of the importance of the Lake Champlain – Hudson River line, Washington sent Kosciuszko to check out and strengthen the defensive capability of Fort Ticonderoga, the strongest point of defence blocking any southward invasion from Canada, along the Hudson. He had been impressed by Kosciuszko’s fortification of the Delaware River around Forts Mercer and Mifflin which had prevented the British navy from taking the American capital city of Philadelphia, The officers at Ticonderoga resented the intrusion of a foreigner who did not speak proper English, so they ignored Kosciuszko’s advice of putting cannons on the adjacent Mt Defiance, then known as Sugar Loaf. Soon after, when the Americans discovered that the British were placing their cannons on this high ground they realised Fort Ticonderoga was no longer defendable. On the 5th of July, 1777 the Fort’s Commander, Major General Arthur St Clair, abandoned it and its arsenal of guns, cannons and gunpowder. Losing this strongpoint was a major setback for the Americans.

Fort Mifflin

Kosciuszko: Fort Mercer marker

Fort Ticenderoga

Ticenderoga Sugar Loaf

On August 19th, Washington sent Horatio Gates to take over command. The new leader was aware of Kosciuszko’s outstanding engineering capabilities. He had studied at the Paris academy and learned from Marquis Vauban, the best military engineer of his day. The Americans were able to make an orderly retreat thanks to the work of Kosciuszko, who flooded the river valleys and cut trees to create obstacles that slowed the British pursuit to a rate of 20 days per 30km.

There was confusion and miscommunication in the British camp. General Howe changed his plans. He decided that the war could be ended quickly if he could capture the American capital city of Philadelphia. Messages supposedly sent to Burgoyne did not reach him and his military imperative remained unchanged. He was to force his way south to rendezvous with the others at Albany as planned.

General Howe sailed south, then after entering Chesapeake Bay on August 28th, he landed his forces at the Head of the Elk River, near present day Elkton, Maryland, only about 60 km from Philadelphia. This movement was watched by the Americans and Washington acted immediately to counteract the threat. He chose the rugged, densely wooded high ground around Chad’s Ford, on Brandywine Creek. All other feasible crossing points were defended strongly and in depth. Washington looked forward to winning the War of Independence in one battle, by annihilating the English invaders if they dared to cross what appeared to be an unassailable defensive position.

Gen. Washinton's Headquarters in Brandywine

Brandywine - tactical map

However, Joseph Galloway, a local British loyalist with a thorough knowledge of all the river crossings, had informed William Howe of Trimble and Jeffries fords, crossing points Washington had no knowledge of! The British again had the opportunity to flank entrenched American forces. Howe deployed his 5 000 German (Hessian) mercenaries, led by Baron Wilhelm von Knyphausen, to feign an attack at Chad’s Ford to occupy the Americans, whilst Lord Cornwallis and 13 000 British troops marched about 20km through thick forest in a flanking manoeuvre. Washington received contradictory reports about British movement around his position but he concluded that this was a deception intended to weaken his defensive depth. By the time local landowner Thomas Chaney was able to convince Washington that in fact the British had split their forces, it was too late and he had been flanked yet again! Lord Cornwallis had marched north, crossed the Brandywine at Trimble’s Ford, pivoted northeast to Jeffries Ford on the East Branch, and then advanced southward to threaten the American right flank. By 4pm of the 11th of September, 1777 the battle was underway.

Washington tried to salvage the situation by sending the Stirling, Stephen and Sullivan commands to meet the British threat. However these units were soon routed by a British bayonet charge and it now appeared that the Americans would be encircled and their Commander in Chief captured. A British force was moving eastwards to cut off the Americans only escape route, the Wilmington – Philadelphia road. Fortunately for Washington, Kazimierz Pulaski who had recently arrived to offer his military skills to the Americans, but who had not yet been given any role, was watching the battle unfold. Pulaski understood the danger of the moment.

Pulaski's Monument in Branbdywine

Pulaski's Monument in Washington

Pulaski's Statue in Philadelphia

The Polish cavalryman was able to convince Washington to provide him with about 30 horses and he made a bold charge at the spearhead of the British advance. Pulaski was only about 158 cm tall, but he was a seasoned cavalry leader, a virtuoso in horsemanship, fearless, and decisive. He was experienced in attacking a larger force with a smaller one and his ‘surprise and shock’ tactic worked again. The British stopped to assess the unexpected threat and the delay was just long enough to allow Washington and his infantry to make a hasty retreat towards Philadelphia. Pulaski successfully repeated the tactic against the advancing Hessians who had overwhelmed the weakened defences at Chad’s Ford. As a result, the defenders of the Ford and their supply wagons escaped capture. Brandywine may have been a battle lost, but the revolution was sustained and the Commander in Chief could fight another day.

Pulaski: marker in Savannah

Pulaski's Monument in Savannah

Meanwhile in New York, Horatio Gates’ observers informed him that his pursuer had stopped at Fort Edward to replenish his army’s provisions. This gave Gates time to prepare fortifications to make a stand against the British. The ground he selected, not far from the present village of Stillwater, appeared strong. However, Kosciuszko disagreed. Kosciuszko had an innate ability, honed by his architectural and military engineer training and experiences, to visualise terrain effects on combat. He judged the current choice as inadequate. Gates asked Kosciuszko to reconnoitre the countryside to find the best alternative. Kosciuszko selected Bemis Heights, about 5km north of Stillwater.

Bemis Heights is situated on the west bank of the Hudson River and at the time, it was surrounded by a dense forest and numerous deep ravines. At this point the 1km alluvial plain narrows to about 200 metres. It is overlooked by the land rising abruptly to a level of 30 metres or so. Under Kosciuszko’s direction the Americans set to work placing cannons and building fortifications to take advantage of the position. The British concluded that the American right flank of steeply sloping bluffs was too strong to attack. Their only choice was to attack the left flank from Freeman’s farm. Twice they tried and they failed on both occasions. The Americans then attacked the depleted British forces who retreated to the Fish-Kill where they were finally encircled by the Continentals.

Running low on provisions, with no way of escape, Burgoyne asked Gates for terms of surrender which both sides agreed to on October 17th 1777. When the news reached Europe that a British Army had been captured by American rebels, perceptions of the conflict changed. America could win! It was a turning point. France declared war with England and recognised America as in independent nation. British historian Edward Shepherd Creasy placed Saratoga as thirteenth in his book The Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World: from Marathon to Waterloo 1851.

Aftermath

George Washington recognised the continued strategic importance of keeping the Lake Champlain – Hudson River line under American control. He ordered Kosciusko to build fortifications at West Point. Kosciuszko spent the next 28 months to make it so impregnable the British never dared to attack it and it became known as America’s Gibraltar.

The war in the north was now at a stalemate with the British controlling the sea and the Americans the land. With the entry of France into the war, George III feared losing control of colonies in the West Indies and the war strategists now believed that the only chance for British success would be to win in the south, where they could expect stronger support from loyalists.

Saratoga Monument

Kosciuszko's Monument at Saratoga

Kosciuszko at Saratoga, a postcard

Early in the American War of Independence, over several weeks between September and October of 1777, two Poles participating in different theatres of the same campaign made significant contributions to shape the fate of America and the world. The motto of ‘for your freedom and ours’ rang true. Unfortunately, Pulaski was wounded by grapeshot during a cavalry charge in the Battle of Savannah on October 9th, 1779 and he died from his wounds two days later.

The grapeshot which killed Pulaski. It is on display at the Powder Magazine Military Museum in Charleston

He was true to his word when he told Washington that:

"I have come where freedom is being defended to serve it, and to live and die for it."

What may have been the fate of Poland if Pulaski had survived and joined Kosciuszko in the fight for Polish Independence? Perhaps Pulaski’s verve, flair, skill and leadership in offensive warfare may have made all the difference.

Felix Molski (Photos by F. Molski & internet)

Kosciuszko & Washington

Kosciuszko's House in Philadelphia - a mark

Kosciuszko's House in Philadelphia today known as Thaddeus Kosciuszko National Memorial